Onalespib lactate, also known as ATI-13387A, is a second-generation, potent and selective HSP90 Inhibitor. Onalespib Blocks mRNA Splicing of Androgen Receptor Variant 7 in Prostate Cancer Cells. Inhibition of HSP90 by AT13387 delays the emergence of resistance to BRAF inhibitors and overcomes resistance to dual BRAF and MEK inhibition in melanoma models. AT13387 induces senescence in EBV-positive nasopharyngeal carcinoma cells and suppresses tumor formation. AT13387, displays a long duration of action in vitro and in vivo in non-small cell lung cancer.

Tiomolibdate diammonium, also known as Ammonium tetrathiomolybdate, is a SOD1 inhibitor with potential antiangiogenic and antitumor activities. ammonium Tiomolibdate diammonium has been found to deplete systemic copper reserves through an unknown mechanism. This agent has been shown to inhibit the activities of cuproenzymes, including superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1) and cytochrome c oxidase (COX), which may contribute to its antiangiogenic and antitumor effects.

GLL398 is an Oral Selective Estrogen Receptor Downregulator. GLL398 strongly binds to ERα in a fluorescence resonance energy transfer binding assay (IC50 =1.14 nM) and potently degrades ERα in MCF-7 breast cancer cells (IC50 = 0.21 μM). Most importantly, the introduction of the boronic acid group confers superior oral bioavailability of GLL398 (AUC = 36.9 μg·h/mL) in rats as compared to GW7604 (AUC = 3.35 μg·h/mL). The strikingly favorable pharmacokinetic property of GLL398 makes it a promising oral SERD suitable for clinical evaluation.

Orteronel (racemic) is a mixture of S-Orteronel and R-Orteronel isomers. Orteronel, aslo known as TAK-700, is an orally bioavailable non-steroidal androgen synthesis inhibitor of steroid 17alpha-monooxygenase (17,20 lyase) with potential antiandrogen activity. TAK-700 binds to and inhibits the steroid 17alpha-monooxygenase in both the testes and adrenal glands, thereby inhibiting androgen production. This may decrease androgen-dependent growth signaling and may inhibit cell proliferation of androgen-dependent tumor cells.

Rolapitant, also known as SCH-619734, is an orally bioavailable, centrally-acting, selective, neurokinin 1 receptor (NK1-receptor) antagonist with potential antiemetic activity. Upon oral administration, rolapitant competitively binds to and blocks the activity of the NK1-receptor in the central nervous system, thereby inhibiting the binding of the endogenous ligand, substance P (SP). This may prevent both SP-induced emesis and chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting (CINV).

Prexasertib, also known as LY2606368, is a potent and selective Chk1/Chk2 inhibitor. Prexasertib increases the effectiveness of conventional therapy in B-/T- cell progenitor acute lymphoblastic leukemia. LY2606368 Causes Replication Catastrophe and Antitumor Effects through CHK1-Dependent Mechanisms. Treatment of cells with LY2606368 results in the rapid appearance of TUNEL and pH2AX-positive double-stranded DNA breaks in the S-phase cell population.

Ipatasertib, also known as GDC0068, is an orally active, potent and selective Akt inhibitor. GDC-0068 blocked Akt signaling both in cultured human cancer cell lines and in tumor xenograft models. Inhibition of Akt activity by GDC-0068 resulted in blockade of cell-cycle progression and reduced viability of cancer cell lines. Markers of Akt activation, including high-basal phospho-Akt levels, PTEN loss, and PIK3CA kinase domain mutations, correlate with sensitivity to GDC-0068. In multiple tumor xenograft models, oral administration of GDC-0068 resulted in antitumor activity ranging from tumor growth delay to regression.

Ulixertinib, also known as BVD-523 and VRT752271, is an inhibitors of ERK protein kinase. Downmodulation of ERK protein kinase activity inhibits VEGF secretion by human myeloma cells and myeloma-induced angiogenesis. Upon oral administration, BVD-523 inhibits both ERK 1 and 2, thereby preventing the activation of ERK-mediated signal transduction pathways. This results in the inhibition of ERK-dependent tumor cell proliferation and survival. The mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK)/ERK pathway is often upregulated in a variety of tumor cell types and plays a key role in tumor cell proliferation, differentiation and survival.

GGTI-298 is a potent geranylgeranyltransferase-I (GGTase-I) inhibitor with potential antitumor actrivity. GGTI-298 disrupts MAP kinase activation and G(1)-S transition in Ki-Ras-overexpressing transformed adrenocortical cells. GGTI-298 induces hypophosphorylation of retinoblastoma and partner switching of cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors. A potential mechanism for GGTI-298 antitumor activity. GGTI-298 arrests human tumor cells in G0/G1 and induces p21(WAF1/CIP1/SDI1) in a p53-independent manner. GGTI-298 induces G0-G1 block and apoptosis whereas FTI-277 causes G2-M enrichment in A549 cells.

CB-1158-analog, also known as Numidargistat-analog and INCB01158-analog, is a potent and orally active arginase inhibitor with IC50=89 nM) . CB-1158 blocked myeloid cell-mediated suppression of T cell proliferation in vitro and reduced tumor growth in multiple mouse models of cancer, as a single agent and in combination with checkpoint blockade, adoptive T cell therapy, adoptive NK cell therapy, and the chemotherapy agent gemcitabine. CB-1158 increased tumor-infiltrating CD8+ T cells and NK cells, inflammatory cytokines, and expression of interferon-inducible genes. CB-1158 may be potentially useful in renal cell cancer, breast cancer, non-small cell lung cancer, acute myeloid leukemia, and other tumor types where arginase-secreting MDSCs are known to play an immunosuppressive role. (see ADDITIONAL INFORMATION in this web page for CB-1158 structure confusion).

JPH203, also known as KYT-0353, is a potent and selective LAT1 selective ( L-type amino acid transporter 1) inhibitor. JPH203 can very potently inhibit l-leucine uptake. JPH203 inhibits YD-38 cell growth. JPH203 up-regulated the population of apoptotic Y

Givinostat or gavinostat, aslo known as ITF2357, is a potent and orally active histone deacetylase inhibitor with potential anti-inflammatory, anti-angiogenic, and antineoplastic activities. It is a hydroxamate used in the form of its hydrochloride. Inhibition of HDAC activity by ITF2357 ameliorates joint inflammation and prevents cartilage and bone destruction in experimental arthritis.ITF2357 reduces cytokines and protects islet β cells in vivo and in vitro. ITF2357 decreases surface CXCR4 and CCR5 expression on CD4(+) T-cells and monocytes and is superior to valproic acid for latent HIV-1 expression in vitro.

Maytansinoid DM4, a chemical derivative of maytansine, is a potent and selective cytotoxic agent with promising anticancer properties. Anticancer properties of maytansinoids have been attributed to their ability to disrupt microtubule function. Maytansin

Avadomide, also known as CC-122, is an orally available pleiotropic pathway modulator with potential antineoplastic activity. CC-122 mimics an interferon response and has antitumor activity in DLBCL CC-122 binds Cereblon (CRBN) and promotes degradation of Aiolos and Ikaros in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) and T cells in vitro, in vivo, and in patients, resulting in both cell autonomous as well as immunostimulatory effects.

ONC206 is a chemical analogue of ONC201. ONC206 is a benzyl-flurobenzyl imipridone that has highly potent activity in preclinical models of difficult-to-treat neuroendocrine tumors and sarcomas. ONC206 acts as a selective antagonist of DRD2 at nanomolar concentrations and has broad-spectrum anti-tumor activity. ONC206 may address tumor types where the properties of ONC201 do not permit for complete therapeutic engagement in vivo.

Deltarasin is a high affinity PDEδ-KRAS interaction inhibitor. Deltarasin can inhibit KRAS-PDEδ interactions by binding to a hydrophobic pocket on PDEδ, resulting in the impairment of cell growth, KRAS activity, and RAS/RAF signaling in human pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma cell lines. The anti-cancer cell activity of deltarasin can be enhanced by simultaneously blocking "tumor protective" autophagy, but inhibited if combined with an anti-oxidant.

Flumatinib, also known as HH-GV-678 , is a selective inhibitor of BCR-ABL/PDGFR/KIT. Flumatinib is currently in Phase I and II clinical trials in China for the treatment of chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML). Flumatinib effectively overcomes drug resistance of certain KIT mutants. Flumatinib mesylate can reduce the expression of C-MYC, HIF-1 α and VEGF in U266 cell line in a time- and dose-dependent manners.

ATN-161 is a small peptide antagonist of integrin alpha5beta1 with potential antineoplastic activity. ATN-161 selectively binds to and blocks the receptor for integrin alpha5beta1, thereby preventing integrin alpha5beta1 binding. This receptor blockade may result in inhibition of endothelial cell-cell interactions, endothelial cell-matrix interactions, angiogenesis, and tumor progression. Integrin alpha5beta1 is expressed on endothelial cells and plays a crucial role in endothelial cell adhesion and migration. Note: The Catalog number of ATN-161 TFA salt was changed from 200350B to 206976.

Filanesib, also known as ARRY-520, is a synthetic, small molecule targeting the kinesin spindle protein (KSP) with potential antineoplastic activity. KSP inhibitor ARRY-520 specifically inhibits KSP (kinesin-5 or Eg5), resulting in activation of the spindle assembly checkpoint, induction of cell cycle arrest during the mitotic phase, and consequently cell death in tumor cells that are actively dividing. Because KSP is not involved in postmitotic processes, such as neuronal transport, this agent does not cause the peripheral neuropathy that is often associated with tubulin-targeting agents.

ONC-201, also known as TIC10 and imipridone, is a potent, orally active, and stable small molecule that transcriptionally induces TRAIL in a p53-independent manner and crosses the blood-brain barrier. TIC10 induces a sustained up-regulation of TRAIL in tumors and normal cells that may contribute to the demonstrable antitumor activity of TIC10. TIC10 inactivates kinases Akt and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), leading to the translocation of Foxo3a into the nucleus, where it binds to the TRAIL promoter to up-regulate gene transcription. TIC10 is an efficacious antitumor therapeutic agent that acts on tumor cells and their microenvironment to enhance the concentrations of the endogenous tumor suppressor TRAIL.

Miransertib, also known as ARQ 092, is an oral activie, potent and selective AKT inhibitor with IC50 values: 5.0 nM (AKT1); 4.5 nM (AKT2); 16 nM (AKT3). ARQ 092 binds to and inhibits the activity of AKT in a non-ATP competitive manner, which may result in the inhibition of the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway. This may lead to the reduction in tumor cell proliferation and the induction of tumor cell apoptosis. ARQ-092 demonstrated high enzymatic potency against AKT1, AKT2, and AKT3, as well as potent cellular inhibition of AKT activation and the phosphorylation of the downstream target PRAS40. ARQ-092 also served as a potent inhibitor of the AKT1-E17K mutant protein and inhibited tumor growth in a human xenograft mouse model of endometrial adenocarcinoma.

MRX-2843, also known as UNC2371, is a potent and orally active MERTK and FLT3 inhibitor. MRX-2843 overcomes resistance-conferring FLT3 mutations in acute myeloid leukemia. MRX-2843 in combination with an irreversible EGFR TKI as a novel strategy for treatment of patients with wtEGFR NSCLC. MRX-2843 treatment induces apoptosis and inhibits colony formation in AML cell lines and primary patient samples expressing MERTK and/or FLT3-ITD, with a wide therapeutic window compared with that of normal human cord blood cells.

Pexidartinib hydrochloride (PLX-3397 hydrochloride) is a potent, orally active, selective, and ATP-competitive colony stimulating factor 1 receptor (CSF1R or M-CSFR) and c-Kit inhibitor, with IC50s of 20 and 10 nM, respectively. Pexidartinib hydrochloride exhibits 10- to 100-fold selectivity for c-Kit and CSF1R over other related kinases. Pexidartinib hydrochloride induces cell apoptosis and has anti-cancer activity.

CCS-1477 is a potent and selective p300/CBP bromodomain inhibitor, is targeted & differentiated from BET inhibitors in prostate cancer cell lines in vitro. Combination of CCS1477 & JQ1 resulted in a highly synergistic inhibitory effect on proliferation in normal 22Rv1 cells. Global gene expression analysis revealed significantly fewer altered genes after CCS1477 (27 up, 119 down) compared to JQ1 (196 up, 655 down).

Methylprednisolone acetate, also known as DEPO-MEDROL, is an anti-inflammatory glucocorticoid for intramuscular, intra-articular, soft tissue or intralesional injection. It is available in three strengths: 20 mg/mL; 40 mg/mL; 80 mg/mL.

Demecarium is a parasympathomimetic that acts as an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor. It is one of several topical (applied directly to the affected area) medications used to reduce elevated intraocular pressure (IOP) associated with primary glaucoma in cats, dogs, and other animals. a cholinesterase inhibitor with sustained activity. It acts mainly on true (erythrocyte) cholinesterase. Application of HUMORSOL (demecarium) to the eye produces intense miosis and ciliary muscle contraction due to inhibition of cholinesterase, allowing acetylcholine to accumulate at sites of cholinergic transmission. These effects are accompanied by increased capillary permeability of the ciliary body and iris, increased permeability of the blood-aqueous barrier, and vasodilation. Myopia may be induced or, if present, may be augmented by the increased refractive power of the lens that results from the accommodative effect of the drug. HUMORSOL (demecarium) indirectly produces some of the muscarinic and nicotinic effects of acetylcholine as quantities of the latter accumulate.

Desmopressin acetate is a synthetic replacement for vasopressin, the hormone that reduces urine production. It may be taken nasally, intravenously, or as a tablet. Doctors prescribe Desmopressin most frequently for treatment of diabetes insipidus or nocturnal enuresis. Desmopressin (1-desamino-8-D-arginine vasopressin) is a modified form of the normal human hormone arginine vasopressin, a peptide containing nine amino acids. Medical use of Desmopressin acetate includes: (a) bed wetting; (b) nighttime urination; (c) clotting disorders; (d) diabetes insipidus.

Tasimelteon (trade name Hetlioz) is a drug approved by the FDA solely for the treatment of non-24-hour sleep?–wake disorder (often designated as N24HSWD) in totally blind adults. It is a selective agonist for the melatonin receptors MT1 and MT2 in the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the brain, similar to other members of the melatonin receptor agonist class of which ramelteon (2005) and agomelatine (2009) were the first approved.

Deferiprone is a drug that chelates iron and is used to treat thalassaemia major. In 1994 was first approved for use in treating thalassaemia major in 1994 and had been licensed for use in Europe and Asia for many years while awaiting approval in Canada and the United States. On October 14, 2011, it was approved for use in the US under the FDA?’s accelerated approval program.

Gabapentin enacarbil is a prodrug for the anticonvulsant and analgesic drug gabapentin. It was designed for increased oral bioavailability over gabapentin, and human trials showed it to produce extended release of gabapentin with almost twice the overall bioavailability, especially when taken with a fatty meal. Gabapentin enacarbil has passed human clinical trials for the treatment of restless legs syndrome, and initial results have shown it to be well tolerated and reasonably effective. (Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabapentin_enacarbil).

Estradiol valerate is a synthetic ester, specifically the 17-pentanoyl ester, of the natural estrogen, 17β-estradiol. It was introduced in the 1950s, and along with estradiol benzoate and estradiol cypionate, has since become one of the most widely used esters of estradiol. (Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estradiol_valerate).

Icatibant is a peptidomimetic drug consisting of ten amino acids, which is a selective and specific antagonist of bradykinin B2 receptors. It has been approved by the European Commission for the symptomatic treatment of acute attacks of hereditary angioedema (HAE) in adults with C1-esterase-inhibitor deficiency.

Simeprevir, also known as TMC43, is a drug for the treatment and cure of hepatitis C. In the United States, simeprevir is approved by the Food and Drug Administration for use in combination with peginterferon-alfa and ribavirin for hepatitis C and hepatitis B. Simeprevir has been approved in Japan for the treatment of chronic hepatitis C infection, genotype 1.

Levomilnacipran (brand name Fetzima) is an antidepressant approved for the treatment of major depressive disorder in the United States. It was developed by Forest Laboratories and Pierre Fabre Group, and was approved by the Food and Drug Administration in July 2013. Levomilnacipran is the levo- enantiomer of milnacipran, and has similar effects and pharmacology, acting as a serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (SNRI). (Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levomilnacipran)

Tazobactam inhibits the action of bacterial β-lactamases, especially those belonging to the SHV-1 and TEM groups. It is commonly used as its sodium salt, tazobactam sodium. Tazobactam is combined with the extended spectrum β-lactam antibiotic piperacillin in the drug piperacillin/tazobactam, one of the preferred antibiotic treatments for nosocomial pneumonia caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa.[medical citation needed] Tazobactam broadens the spectrum of piperacillin by making it effective against organisms that express β-lactamase and would normally degrade piperacillin. Tazobactam is derived from the penicillin nucleus and is a penicillinic acid sulfone.

Peramivir, also known as BCX1812 and RWJ 270201, is an antiviral drug for the treatment of influenza. Peramivir is a neuraminidase inhibitor, acting as a transition-state analogue inhibitor of influenza neuraminidase and thereby preventing new viruses from emerging from infected cells. Peramivir was approved to treat influenza infection in adults. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peramivir).

Tenofovir alafenamide, also known as TAF and GS-7340, is a nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NRTIs) and a novel prodrug of tenofovir. By blocking reverse transcriptase, TAF prevent HIV from multiplying and can reduce the amount of HIV in the body. Tenofovir alafenamide is a prodrug, which means that it is an inactive drug. In the body, tenofovir alafenamide is converted to tenofovir diphosphate (TFV-DP). Tenofovir alafenamide fumarate was approved in November 2015 for treatment of HIV-1.

Fluorogestone Acetate (also known as Flurogestone Acetate, Flugestone Acetate, Fluorogesterone Acetate) was first synthesised by G. D. Searle and Company in 1959. The chemical, which has progestogen activity, was identified as SC-9880. Fluorogestone acetate showed a high potency with short duration of activity and performed physiologically similar to progesterone. FGA was approximately 20 ?– 25 times more potent than progesterone. Flurogestone acetate was shown to be readily absorbed from impregnated sponges. A 30mg impregnated sponge was effective in blocking ovulation and oestrus, once the sponge was removed impregnated ewes showed visible oestrus, and if inseminated 2 to 4 days after sponge removal showed high conception rates. (Source: http://pharmplex.com.au/Technical/fluorogestone_acetate_sheep_goat.htm).

Flumetasone, also known as RS 2177, is a corticosteroid for topical use. It is available in combination with clioquinol, under the trade name Locacorten-Vioform (in some countries Locorten-Vioform), for the treatment of otitis externa and otomycosis.

Ganciclovir (INN) is an antiviral medication used to treat or prevent cytomegalovirus (CMV) infections. Ganciclovir is a synthetic analogue of 2′-deoxy-guanosine. It is first phosphorylated to ganciclovir monophosphate by a viral kinase encoded by the cytomegalovirus (CMV) gene UL97 during infection. Subsequently, cellular kinases catalyze the formation of ganciclovir diphosphate and ganciclovir triphosphate, which is present in 10-fold greater concentrations in CMV or herpes simplex virus (HSV)-infected cells than uninfected cells. A prodrug form with improved oral bioavailability (valganciclovir) has also been developed.

Estriol (also oestriol) is one of the three main estrogens produced by the human body. In pregnant women with multiple sclerosis (MS), estriol reduces the disease's symptoms noticeably, according to researchers at UCLA's Geffen Medical School. Estriol can be a weak or strong estrogen depending on if it is given acutely or chronically when given to immature animals, but is an antagonist when given in combination with estradiol. Estriol may play a role in the development of breast cancer, but based on in vitro research does appear to act as an antagonist to the G-protein coupled estrogen receptor. Though estriol is used as part of the primarily North American phenomenon of bioidentical hormone replacement therapy, it is not approved for use by the FDA or Health Canada. (Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estriol).

Pergolide (Permax, Pergotoliderived) is an ergoline-based dopamine receptor agonist used in some countries for the treatment of Parkinson's disease. Parkinson's disease is associated with low levels of the neurotransmitter dopamine in the brain. Pergolide has some of the same effects as dopamine in the body. In 2007, pergolide was withdrawn from the U.S. market after several published studies revealed a link between the drug and increased rates of valvular dysfunction. (Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pergolide )

Bethanechol chloride, a cholinergic agent, is a synthetic esler which is structurally and pharmacologically related to acetylcholine. It is designated chemically as Z-[(aminocarbony) oxy]-N, N, (V-trimethyl-1-propanaminium chloride. Its molecular formula is C7H17CIN202. It is a white, hygroscopic crystalline powder having a slight amine-like odor, freely soluble in water, and has a molecular weight of 196.68. Each tablet for oral administration contains 5 mg, 10 mg, 25 mg or 50 mg bethanechol chloride, USP Tablets also contain the following inactive ingredients: colloidal silicon dioxide, lactose monohydrate, magnesium stearate, microcrystalline cellulose, sodium starch glycolate, (25 mg and 50 mg) D&C~ Yellow # 10 Lake and FD&C Yellow # 6 Lake.

Betamethasone dipropionate is a glucocorticoid steroid with anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive abilities. It is applied as a topical cream, ointment, lotion or gel (Diprolene) to treat itching and other minor skin conditions such as eczema. Brand names include Alphatrex, Beta-Val, Diprolene, Diprolene AF, Diprosone, and Luxiq. Minor side-effects include dry skin and mild temporary stinging when applied.

Cyproterone acetate is an antiandrogen, i.e. it suppresses the actions of testosterone (and its metabolite dihydrotestosterone) on tissues. It acts by blocking androgen receptors which prevents androgens from binding to them and suppresses luteinizing hormone (which in turn reduces testosterone levels). Its main indications are prostate cancer, benign prostatic hyperplasia, priapism, hypersexuality and other conditions in which androgen action maintains the disease process. Due to its anti-androgen effect, it can also be used to treat hirsutism, and is a common component in hormone therapy for male-to-female transsexual people.

Deflazacort is a glucocorticoid used as an anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressant. It is sold in the United Kingdom by Shire under the trade name Calcort. in Brazil as Cortax, Decortil, and Deflanil, and in Honduras as Flezacor. It is not available in the United States. Deflazacort is a prodrug. Its potency is around 70?–90% that of prednisone.

Bucillamine is an antirheumatic agent developed from tiopronin. It is mainly used in Japan and Korea. Activity is mediated by the two thiol groups that the molecule contains. Research done in USA showed positive transplant preservation properties.

Mitoquinone mesylate, also known as MitoQ or MitoQ10; is a mitochondria-targeted antioxidant designed to accumulate within mitochondria in vivo in order to protect against oxidative damage. MitoQ comprises a positively charged lipophilic cation that drives its extensive accumulation within the negatively charged mitochondria inside cells. The active antioxidant component of MitoQ is ubiquinone, which is identical to the active antioxidant in Coenzyme Q10. It is this approximately thousand-fold greater concentration of MitoQ within mitochondria that makes it more effective at preventing mitochondrial oxidative damage when compared to untargeted antioxidants such as Coenzyme Q10. NOTE: For the convenience of use, this product is supplied as 200mg /mL solution in ethanol-water (1:1, v/v) solution since pure MitoQ10 is a tar-like or waxy semi-solid and very hard to transfer between containers.

Ebastine, is a H1 antihistamine with low potential for causing drowsiness. It does not penetrate the blood–brain barrier to a significant amount and thus combines an effective block of the H1 receptor in peripheral tissue with a low incidence of central side effects, i.e. seldom causing sedation or drowsiness. After oral administration, ebastine undergoes extensive first-pass metabolism by hepatic cytochrome P450 3A4 into its active carboxylic acid metabolite, carebastine. This conversion is practically complete. Ebastine is a second-generation H1 receptor antagonist that is indicated mainly for allergic rhinitis and chronic idiopathic urticaria.

Acenocoumarol is a coumarin that is used as an anticoagulant. Its actions and uses are similar to those of Warfarin. As a vitamin K antagonist, acenocoumarol inhibits vitamin K epoxide reductase, thereby inhibiting the reduction of vitamin K and the availability of vitamin KH2. This prevents gamma carboxylation of glutamic acid residues near the N-terminals of the vitamin K-dependent clotting factors, including factor II, VII, IX, and X and anticoagulant proteins C and S. This prevents their activity, preventing thrombin formation.

Acetohexamide is a sulfonylurea derivative. Acetohexamide is a hyopglycemic agent with moderate uricosuric activity. Acetohexamide is a first generation medication used in the treatment of diabetes metilus type 2.

Acyclovir monophosphate is the monophosphate ester of Acyclovir. Acyclovir is an antiviral agent with activity against herpes simplex virus types 1 and 2 (HSV-1 and HSV-2) and varicella zoster virus. Acyclovir is converted by a herpesvirus enzyme into acyclovir triphosphate that inhibits the synthesis of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecules in the virally infected cells, thereby inhibiting viral replication. It induces apoptosis in cells transfected with HSV-TK (suicidal gene therapy).

Adinazolam (brand name: Deracyn) is a benzodiazepine derivative, more specifically, a triazolobenzodiazepine (TBZD). It possesses anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, sedative, and antidepressant properties. Adinazolam was developed by Dr. Jackson B. Hester, who was seeking to enhance the antidepressant properties of alprazolam, which he also developed. Adinazolam was never FDA approved and was never available to the public.

Alclometasone is synthetic glucocorticoid steroid for topical use in dermatology as anti-inflammatory, antipruritic, antiallergic, antiproliferative and vasoconstrictive agent. The prodrug alclometasone dipropionate is marketed as Aclovate by GlaxoSmithKline.

Alfuzosin HCl is a pharmaceutical drug of the alpha-1 blocker class. As an antagonist of the alpha-1 adrenergic receptor, it works by relaxing the muscles in the prostate and bladder neck, making it easier to urinate. It is thus used to treat benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). Alfuzosin is marketed in the United States by Sanofi Aventis under the brand name Uroxatral and elsewhere under the tradename Xat or Xatral, and in Egypt under name of Prostetrol. Alfuzosin was approved by the FDA for treatment of BPH in June 2003.

Almitrine Dimesylate (marketed as Duxil by Servier) is a diphenylmethylpiperazine derivative classified as a respiratory stimulant by the ATC. It enhances respiration by acting as an agonist of peripheral chemoreceptors located on the carotid bodies. The drug increases arterial oxygen tension while decreasing arterial carbon dioxide tension in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. It may also prove useful in the treatment of nocturnal oxygen desaturation without impairing the quality of sleep.

Alprenolol HCl, or alfeprol, alpheprol, and alprenololum (Gubernal, Regletin, Yobir, Apllobal, Aptine, Aptol Duriles), is a non-selective beta blocker as well as 5-HT1A receptor antagonist, used in the treatment of angina pectoris. It is no longer marketed by AstraZeneca, but may still be available from other pharmaceutical companies or generically.

Amantadine is a drug that has U.S. Food and Drug Administration approval for use both as an antiviral and an anti-parkinsonian drug. Amantadine is a weak antagonist of the NMDA-type glutamate receptor, increases dopamine release, and blocks dopamine reuptake. Amantadine probably does not inhibit MAO enzyme. Moreover, the mechanism of its antiparkinsonian effect is poorly understood.[citation needed] The drug has many effects in the brain, including release of dopamine and norepinephrine from nerve endings. It appears to be a weak NMDA receptor antagonist as well as an anticholinergic, specifically a nicotinic alpha-7 antagonist like the similar pharmaceutical memantine.

Amcinonide (trade name Cyclocort) is a topical glucocorticoid used to treat itching, redness and swelling associated with several dermatologic conditions such as atopic dermatitis and allergic contact dermatitis. Amcinonide is a synthetic glucocorticoid receptor agonist that mimics the metabolic, anti-inflammatory, and immunosuppressive activity of the natural glucocorticoids. Amcinonide interacts with specific corticosteroid receptors and was internalized, which leads to binding of DNA and modification of gene expression. This results in synthesis of anti-inflammatory mediators while inhibiting synthesis of inflammatory mediators. Consequently, an overall reduction in chronic inflammation and autoimmune reactions are achieved. Amcinonide can also be classified as a multi-functional small molecule corticosteroid, which has been approved by the FDA and is currently marketed as an ointment, lotion, or cream. It acts as both a transcription factor for responses to glucocorticoids and modulator for other transcription factors while also regulating phospholipase A2 activity.

Mecillinam (INN) or amdinocillin (USAN) is an extended-spectrum penicillin antibiotic that binds specifically to penicillin binding protein 2 (PBP2), and is only considered to be active against Gram-negative bacteria. It is used primarily in the treatment of urinary tract infections, and has also been used to treat typhoid and paratyphoid fever. Because mecillinam has very low oral bioavailability, an orally active prodrug was developed: pivmecillinam. Neither drug is available in the United States.

Amiodarone is categorized as a class III antiarrhythmic agent, and prolongs phase 3 of the cardiac action potential, the repolarization phase where there is normally decreased calcium permeability and increased potassium permeability. It has numerous other effects however, including actions that are similar to those of antiarrhythmic classes Ia, II, and IV. Amiodarone shows beta blocker-like and calcium channel blocker-like actions on the SA and AV nodes, increases the refractory period via sodium- and potassium-channel effects, and slows intra-cardiac conduction of the cardiac action potential, via sodium-channel effects.Amiodarone chemically resembles thyroxine (thyroid hormone), and its binding to the nuclear thyroid receptor might contribute to some of its pharmacologic and toxic actions.

Amisulpride is an atypical antipsychotic used to treat psychosis in schizophrenia and episodes of mania in bipolar disorder. In Italy, it is also used as a treatment for dysthymia. It was introduced by Sanofi-Aventis in the 1990s. Its patent had expired by 2008 and hence generic formulations are now available.Amisulpride function primarily as a D2 and D3 receptor antagonist. It has high affinity for these receptors with dissociation constants of 2.2 nM and 2.4 nM, respectively. Although standard doses used to treat psychosis inhibit dopaminergic neurotransmission, low doses preferentially block inhibitory pre-synaptic autoreceptors.

Amitriptyline, sold under the brand name Elavil among others, is a medication used to treat a number of mental illnesses. This including major depressive disorder and anxiety disorder, and less commonly attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and bipolar disorder. Other uses include prevention of migraines, treatment of neuropathic pain such as fibromyalgia and postherpetic neuralgia, and less commonly insomnia. It is taken by mouth. Common side effects include a dry mouth, trouble seeing, low blood pressure on standing, sleepiness, and constipation.

Amlexanox, also known as AA-673 and CHX 3673, is an anti-inflammatory antiallergic immunomodulator used to treat recurrent aphthous ulcers (canker sores), and (in Japan) several inflammatory conditions. Amlexanox inhibits the synthesis and release of inflammatory mediators, including leukotrienes and histamine, from mast cells, neutrophils, and mononuclear cells. Amlexanox also acts as a leukotriene D4 antagonist and a phosphodiesterase inhibitor. Amlexanox decreases the time ulcers take to heal as well as the pain associated with the ulcers.

Amlodipine (as besylate, mesylate or maleate) is a medication used to lower blood pressure and prevent chest pain. It belongs to a group of medications known as dihydropyridine-type calcium channel blockers. By widening of blood vessels it lowers blood pressure. In angina, amlodipine increases blood flow to the heart muscle to relieve pain due to angina.

Amoxicillin, also spelled amoxycillin and amox, is an antibiotic useful for the treatment of a number of bacterial infections. Amoxicillin is a broad-spectrum semisynthetic antibiotic similar to Ampicillin except that its resistance to gastric acid permits higher serum levels with oral administration. It is the first line treatment for middle ear infections. It may also be used for strep throat, pneumonia, skin infections, and urinary tract infections among others. It is taken orally. This drug acts by inhibiting the synthesis of bacterial cell walls. It inhibits cross-linkage between the linear peptidoglycan polymer chains that make up a major component of the cell walls of both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. It has two ionizable groups in the physiological range (the amino group in alpha-position to the amide carbonyl group and the carboxyl group).

Ampicillin is an antibiotic used to prevent and treat a number of bacterial infections. This includes respiratory tract infections, urinary tract infections, meningitis, salmonella infections, and endocarditis. It may also be used to prevent group B streptococcal infection in newborns. It is used by mouth, by injection into a muscle, or intravenously. It is not useful for the treatment of viral infections. Ampicillin was developed in 1961. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, the most important medication needed in a basic health system. Ampicillin is in the penicillin group of beta-lactam antibiotics and is part of the aminopenicillin family. It is roughly equivalent to amoxicillin in terms of activity. Ampicillin is able to penetrate Gram-positive and some Gram-negative bacteria. It differs from penicillin G, or benzylpenicillin, only by the presence of an amino group. That amino group helps the drug penetrate the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria. Ampicillin acts as an irreversible inhibitor of the enzyme transpeptidase, which is needed by bacteria to make their cell walls. It inhibits the third and final stage of bacterial cell wall synthesis in binary fission, which ultimately leads to cell lysis; therefore ampicillin is usually bacteriocidal.

Anagrelide (Agrylin/Xagrid, Shire and Thromboreductin, AOP Orphan Pharmaceuticals) is a drug used for the treatment of essential thrombocytosis (ET; essential thrombocythemia), or overproduction of blood platelets. It also has been used in the treatment of chronic myeloid leukemia. Anagrelide works by inhibiting the maturation of platelets from megakaryocytes. The mechanism of action of anagrelide is as a Phosphodiesterase 3 Inhibitor. The physiologic effect of anagrelide is by means of Decreased Platelet Production. Anagrelide is a synthetic quinazoline derivative, Anagrelide reduces platelet production through a decrease in megakaryocyte maturation. Anagrelide inhibits cyclic AMP phosphodiesterase, as well as ADP- and collagen-induced platelet aggregation. At therapeutic doses, it does not influence white cell counts or coagulation parameters. Anagrelide is used for treatment of essential thrombocythemia to reduce elevated platelet counts and the risk of thrombosis.

Anisindione (brand name Miradon) is a synthetic anticoagulant and an indanedione derivative. It prevents the formation of active procoagulation factors II, VII, IX, and X, as well as the anticoagulant proteins C and S, in the liver by inhibiting the vitamin K–mediated gamma-carboxylation of precursor proteins.

Octatropine methylbromide (INN) or anisotropine methylbromide (USAN), trade names Valpin, Endovalpin, Lytispasm and others, is a muscarinic antagonist and antispasmodic. It was introduced to the U.S. market in 1963 as an adjunct in the treatment of peptic ulcer, and promoted as being more specific to the gastrointestinal tract than other anticholinergics. Anisotropine methylbromide is a quaternary ammonium compound. Its use as treatment adjunct in peptic ulcer has been replaced by the use of more effective agents. Depending on the dose, anisotropine methylbromide may reduce the motility and secretory activity of the gastrointestinal system, and the tone of the ureter and urinary bladder and may have a slight relaxant action on the bile ducts and gallbladder. In general, smaller doses of anisotropine methylbromide inhibit salivary and bronchial secretions, sweating, and accommodation; cause dilatation of the pupil; and increase the heart rate. Larger doses are required to decrease motility of the gastrointestinal and urinary tracts and to inhibit gastric acid secretion.

Antazoline is a 1st generation antihistamine with anticholinergic properties used to relieve nasal congestion and in eye drops, usually in combination with naphazoline, to relieve the symptoms of allergic conjunctivitis. Antazoline is an ethylenediamine derivative with histamine H1 antagonistic and sedative properties. Antazoline antagonizes histamine H1 receptor and prevents the typical allergic symptoms caused by histamine activities on capillaries, skin, mucous membranes, and gastrointestinal and bronchial smooth muscles.

Apraclonidine HCl, also known as Iopidine, is a sympathomimetic used in glaucoma therapy. It is an α2-adrenergic agonist and a weak alpha-1 adrenergic receptor agonist. Upon ocular administration, apraclonidine enhances aqueous humor uveoscleral outflow and decreases aqueous production by vasoconstriction.

Aprindine HCl is a Class 1b antiarrhythmic agent used to manage ventricular and supraventricular arrhythmias. In one study, it delayed atrial fibrillation more than digoxin did. It has shown effectiveness when given orally.

Arformoterol tartrate is a long acting beta-adrenoceptor agonist drug indicated for the treatment of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). It is sold by Sunovion, under the trade name Brovana, as a solution of arformoterol tartrate to be administered twice daily (morning and evening) by nebulization. It is the active (R,R)-enantiomer of formoterol and was approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) on October 6, 2006 for the treatment of COPD.

Atorvastatin is used primarily for lowering blood cholesterol and for prevention of events associated with cardiovascular disease. Like all statins, atorvastatin works by inhibiting HMG-CoA reductase, an enzyme found in liver tissue that plays a key role in production of cholesterol in the body.Atorvastatin is also used for the treatment of dyslipidemia.

Azlocillin Sodium is the sodium salt form of azlocillin, a semisynthetic, extended spectrum acylampicillin with antibacterial activity. Azlocillin binds to penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) located inside the bacterial cell wall, thereby inhibiting the cross-linkage of peptidoglycans, which are critical components of the bacterial cell wall. This prevents proper bacterial cell wall synthesis, thereby results in the weakening of the bacterial cell wall and eventually leading to cell lysis.

Balsalazide Disodium is the disodium salt form of balsalazide, an aminosalicylate and oral prodrug that is enzymatically cleaved in the colon to produce the anti-inflammatory agent mesalazine. Mesalazine acts locally on the mucosa of the colon where it diminishes inflammation by blocking the production of arachidonic acid metabolites and other inflammatory agents. Balsalazide disodium is used to treat chronic inflammatory bowel disease.

Bendroflumethiazide is a thiazide diuretic used to treat hypertension. Bendroflumethiazide works by inhibiting sodium reabsorption at the beginning of the distal convoluted tubule and may play an important role in the treatment of mild heart failure.

Bentiromide is a peptide used as a screening test for exocrine pancreatic insufficiency and to monitor the adequacy of supplemental pancreatic therapy. It is given by mouth as a noninvasive test. The amount of 4-aminobenzoic acid and its metabolites excreted in the urine is taken as a measure of the chymotrypsin-secreting activity of the pancreas.

Benztropine is a synthetic compound derived from the combination of atropine and diphenhydramine that acts centrally to antagonize M1 muscarinic acetylcholine receptors. Benztropine has been used in the management of Parkinson’s disease symptoms to address involuntary tremor and dystonia. It can also increase the availability of dopamine by inhibiting uptake through the dopamine transporter.

Benzquinamide hydrochloride is a benzquinamide is an antiemetic compound with antihistaminic, mild anticholinergic, and sedative properties. The mechanism of action is not known, but presumably benzquinamide works via antagonism of muscarinic acetycholine receptors and histamine H1 receptors.

Benzthiazide is a research compound with diuretic and antihypertensive properties used in the treatment of high blood pressure and edema.

Betaxolol Hydrochloride is the hydrochloride salt form of betaxolol, a β1-AR selective adrenergic receptor antagonist. Betaxolol hydrochloride acts on the heart and circulatory system and decreases cardiac contractility and rate, and cardiac output levels. When applied topically in the eye, it lowers intraocular pressure by reducing aqueous humor secretion.

Bethanidine sulfate is a guanidinium antihypertensive agent that acts by blocking adrenergic transmission.

Bevantolol Hydrochloride is a beta-1 adrenoceptor antagonist that has been shown to be as effective as other beta blockers for the treatment of angina pectoris and hypertension.

Bifonazole is an imidazole antifungal drug. Bifonazole has dual mode of action. It blocks transformation of 24-methylendihydrolanosterol to desmethylsterol in fungi together with inhibition of HMG-CoA. This enables fungicidal properties against dermatophytes and distinguishes bifonazole from other antifungal drugs. Bifonazole is marketed by Bayer under the trade mark Canespor in ointment form.

Biotin, also known as vitamin H or coenzyme R, is a water-soluble B-vitamin (vitamin B7). It is composed of a ureido (tetrahydroimidizalone) ring fused with a tetrahydrothiophene ring. A valeric acid substituent is attached to one of the carbon atoms of the tetrahydrothiophene ring. Biotin is a coenzyme for carboxylase enzymes, involved in the synthesis of fatty acids, isoleucine, and valine, and in gluconeogenesis.

Bopindolol malonate is a non-selective, potent, long-acting beta adrenoceptor antagonist. It demonstrates inhibition of H2O2-induced lipid peroxdiation. Bopindolol malonate slowly dissociates into the active metabolites 4-(3-tert-butylamino-2-hydroxypropoxy)-2-methyl indole and 4-(3-tert-butylaminopropoxy)-2-carboxyl indole which both demonstrate potent β1-adrenoceptor blocking activity.

Bromfenac is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) marketed in the US as an ophthalmic solution by ISTA Pharmaceuticals for short-term, local use. Prolensa and Bromday are the once-daily formulation of bromfenac, while Xibrom was approved for twice-daily administration. Bromfenac is indicated for the treatment of ocular inflammation and pain after cataract surgery, though it may be prescribed in an off-label manner by the physician. The high degree of penetration and potency of bromfenac can be attributed to the halogenation of the molecule: by adding a bromine moiety the NSAID becomes highly lipophilic which allows for rapid, sustained drug levels in the ocular tissues.

Buclizine is an antihistamine and anticholinergic of the piperazine derivative family. It is considered to be an antiemetic, similar to meclizine.

Bupropion or bupropion hydrochloride, also known formerly as amfebutamone, is a medication primarily used as an antidepressant and smoking cessation aid. It is one of the most frequently prescribed antidepressants in the United States, although in many English-speaking countries, including the United Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand, this is an off-label use. Chemically, bupropion is in the aminoketone family. Bupropion serves as an atypical antidepressant different from most commonly prescribed antidepressants such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). It is an effective antidepressant on its own, but is also popular as an add-on medication in cases of incomplete response to first-line SSRI antidepressants.

Buspirone HCl is an anxiolytic psychotropic drug of the azapirone chemical class. It is primarily used to treat generalized anxiety disorder (GAD). Unlike most drugs predominantly used to treat anxiety, buspirone's pharmacology is not related to benzodiazepines or barbiturates, and so does not carry the risk of physical dependence and withdrawal symptoms for which those drug classes are known.

Butoconazole is an imidazole antifungal used in gynecology. It is administered as a vaginal cream.

Carbachol is a cholinomimetic drug that binds and activates the acetylcholine receptor. Thus it is classified as a cholinergic agonist. It is primarily used for various ophthalmic purposes, such as for treating glaucoma, or for use during ophthalmic surgery. It is generally administered as an ophthalmic solution (i.e. eyedrops).

Carglumic acid is an orphan drug, marketed by Orphan Europe under the trade name Carbaglu. Carglumic acid is used for the treatment of hyperammonaemia in patients with N-acetylglutamate synthase deficiency. The initial daily dose ranges from 100 to 250 mg/kg, adjusted thereafter to maintain normal plasma levels of ammonia.

Carphenazine dimaleate is an antipsychotic agent, mainly used for the treatment of chronic schizophrenia.

Carprofen is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug that veterinarians prescribe as a supportive treatment for various conditions. It provides day-to-day treatment for pain and inflammation from arthritis in geriatric dogs, joint pain, osteoarthritis, hip dysplasia, and other forms of joint deterioration. It is also used to relieve short-term post-operative pain, inflammation, and swelling after spaying, neutering, and other procedures. Carprofen reduces inflammation by inhibition of COX-2 and other sources of inflammatory prostaglandins. This is targeted protection, in that it does not interfere with COX-1 activity.

Cephacetrile is a broad-spectrum first-generation cephalosporin with antibiotic and antibacterial activity. Cephacetrile binds to and inactivates penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) located on the inner membrane of the bacterial cell wall. PBPs are enzymes involved in the terminal stages of assembling the bacterial cell wall and in reshaping the cell wall during growth and division. Inactivation of PBPs interferes with the cross-linkage of peptidoglycan chains necessary for bacterial cell wall strength and rigidity. This results in the weakening of the bacterial cell wall and causes cell lysis.

Cefaclor is a beta-lactam, second-generation cephalosporin antibiotic that inhibits cell wall synthesis. The antibiotic is active against a wide spectrum of common pathogens, including gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. Cefaclor binds to and inactivates penicillin-binding proteins (PBP) located in bacterial cytoplasmic membranes. PBPs are enzymes involved in the terminal stages of assembling the bacterial cell wall and in reshaping the cell wall during growth and division. Inactivation of PBPs interferes with the cross-linkage of peptidoglycan chains necessary for bacterial cell wall strength and rigidity.

Cefadroxil is a broad-spectrum antibiotic of the cephalosporin type, effective in Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacterial infections. It is a bactericidal antibiotic. Cefadroxil is a semi-synthetic, beta-lactam, first-generation cephalosporin antibiotic with bactericidal activity. Cefadroxil binds to and inactivates penicillin-binding proteins (PBP) located on the inner membrane of the bacterial cell wall. PBPs are enzymes involved in the terminal stages of assembling the bacterial cell wall and in reshaping the cell wall during growth and division. Inactivation of PBPs interferes with the cross-linkage of peptidoglycan chains necessary for bacterial cell wall strength and rigidity. This results in the weakening of the bacterial cell wall and causes cell lysis.

Cefalotin is a first generation cephem antibiotic with a wide range antibacterial activity. The compound is active against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, and has been tested in respiratory disease and neuromuscular junction studies.

Cefamandole nafate is a pro-drug that is hydrolyzed by plasma esterases to produce cefamandole, second-generation cephalosporin antibiotic with bactericidal activity. Cefamandole nafate is used to study the effects of expression and inhibition of PBP 2A and other penicillin-binding proteins (PDPs) on bacterial cell wall mucopeptide synthesis. Cefamandole binds to and inactivates penicillin-binding proteins (PBP) located on the inner membrane of the bacterial cell wall. Inactivation of PBPs interferes with the cross-linkage of peptidoglycan chains necessary for bacterial cell wall strength and rigidity. This results in the weakening of the bacterial cell wall and causes cell lysis.

Cefazolin sodium salt inhibits synthesis of bacterial cell wall. Cefazolin Sodium is the sodium salt of cefazolin, a beta-lactam antibiotic and first-generation cephalosporin with bactericidal activity. Cefazolin binds to and inactivates penicillin-binding proteins (PBP) located on the inner membrane of the bacterial cell wall. Inactivation of PBPs interferes with the cross-linkage of peptidoglycan chains necessary for bacterial cell wall strength and rigidity, which results in the weakening of the bacterial cell wall and cell lysis.

Cefepime Hydrochloride is a broad-spectrum cephalosporin with activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. It binds to penicillin-binding proteins and disrupts the cell wall synthesis. It is resistant to hydrolysis by common plasmid and/or chromosomally-mediated β-lactamases. (Last Updated: 02/10/2016).

Cefixime is a third generation cephalosporin antibiotic. It is effective against a variety of Gram-negative bacteria, including E. coli, K. pneumoniae, and H. influenzae. Cefixime binds penicillin-binding proteins and is stable to many penicillinases and β-lactamases. It is an effective, orally-active cephalosporin with applications in acute otitis media, respiratory tract infections, and urinary tract infections.

Cefmetazole is a second-generation, semi-synthetic, beta-lactam cephalosporin antibiotic with antibacterial activity. Cefmetazole binds to penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) that are responsible for crosslinking of peptidoglycan. By preventing crosslinking of peptidoglycan, cell wall integrity is lost and cell wall synthesis is halted.

Cefonicid Sodium is the sodium salt form of cefonicid, a semisynthetic second-generation broadspectrum cephalosporin with antibacterial activity that inhibits the formation of the bacterial cell wall. Cefonicid binds to and inactivates penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) located on the inner membrane of the bacterial cell wall. PBPs are enzymes involved in the terminal stages of assembling the bacterial cell wall and in reshaping the cell wall during growth and division. Inactivation of PBPs interferes with the cross-linkage of peptidoglycan chains necessary for bacterial cell wall strength and rigidity. This results in the weakening of the bacterial cell wall and causes cell lysis.

Cefoperazone Sodium is the sodium salt form of cefoperazone and a semi-synthetic, broad-spectrum, beta-lactamase resistant, third-generation cephalosporin antibiotic with bactericidal activity. It is marketed by Pfizer under the name Cefobid. Cefoperazone sodium inhibits bacterial cell wall synthesis by inactivating penicillin binding proteins (PBPs) thereby interfering with the final transpeptidation step required for cross-linking of peptidoglycan units which are a component of bacterial cell walls. This results in a reduction of cell wall stability and causes cell lysis. It is one of few cephalosporin antibiotics effective in treating Pseudomonas bacterial infections which are otherwise resistant to these antibiotics.

Ceforanide is a semi-synthetic, broad-spectrum, beta-lactam, second-generation cephalosporin antibiotic with bactericidal activity. Ceforanide causes inhibition of bacterial cell wall synthesis by inactivating penicillin binding proteins (PBPs) thereby interfering with the final transpeptidation step required for cross-linking of peptidoglycan units which are a component of the cell wall. This results in a reduction of cell wall stability and causes cell lysis.

Cefotaxime Sodium is the sodium salt form of cefotaxime, a beta-lactam, third-generation cephalosporin antibiotic with bactericidal activity. Cefotaxime sodium binds to and inactivates penicillin-binding proteins (PBP) located on the inner membrane of the bacterial cell wall. Inactivation of PBPs interferes with the cross-linking of peptidoglycan chains necessary for bacterial cell wall strength and rigidity. This results in the weakening of the bacterial cell wall and causes cell lysis. Compared to the second and first generation cephalosporins, cefotaxime sodium is more active against gram-negative bacteria and less active against gram-positive bacteria. It is effective against postoperative complications in surgical treatment of pulmonary, tracheal and mediastinal tumors.

Cefotetan Sodium, also known as ICI-156834 and YM-09330, is a second-generation cephalosporin, cephamycin antibiotic that is active against a wide range of both aerobic and anaerobic gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. Cefotetan binds to penicillin-binding proteins and disrupts the cell wall synthesis.

Cefotetan Hydrochloride is a second-generation cephalosporin that is active against some strains of β-lactamase producing bacteria. It shows anti-microbial activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria; it is more efficacious against Gram-negative and anaerobic bacteria. Cefotetan Hydrochloride binds to penicillin-binding proteins and disrupts the cell wall synthesis.

Cefoxitin Sodium is a semisynthetic cephamycin antibiotic resistant to beta-lactamase. It is derived from Cephamycin C and is highly resistance to β-lactamase inactivation. Also an antibacterial, cefoxitin sodium acts by adhering to bacterial penicillin-binding proteins, thereby inhibiting cell wall synthesis.

Cefpodoxime Proxetil is an antibacterial with a broad spectrum activity. It is an oral, third generation cephalosporin, ester prodrug of the active free acid metabolite Cefpodoxime. It is active against most Gram-positive and Gram-negative organisms. It is commonly used to treat acute otitis media, pharyngitis, sinusitis, and gonorrhea. It also finds use as oral continuation therapy when intravenous cephalosporins (such as ceftriaxone) are no longer necessary for continued treatment. Currently, it is only marketed as generic preparations in the USA.

Cefprozil, under the marketed trade name Cefzil, is a second-generation cephalosporin type antibiotic. It can be used to treat bronchitis, ear infections, skin infections, and other bacterial infections. It comes as a tablet and as a liquid suspension. Cefprozil's effect is dependent on its binding to penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) located in the bacterial cytoplasmic membrane. Binding results in the inhibition of the transpeptidase enzymes, thereby preventing cross-linking of the pentaglycine bridge with the fourth residue of the pentapeptide and interrupting consequent synthesis of peptidoglycan chains. As a result, cefprozil inhibits bacterial septum and cell wall synthesis formation.

Ceftazidime is a broad-spectrum β-lactam antibiotic used as an antimicrobial agent. It is used for treating febrile neutropenia in patients with cancer. It is a third-generation cephalosporin. As a class, cephalosporins have activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. The balance of activity tips toward Gram-positive organisms for earlier generations; later generations of cephalosporins have more Gram-negative coverage. Ceftazidime is one of the few in this class with activity against Pseudomonas.

Ceftizoxime is third generation cephalosporin effective against Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. It binds penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) and inhibits the bacterial cell wall synthesis. Unlike other third-generation cephalosporins, the whole C-3 side chain in ceftizoxime has been removed to prevent deactivation by hydrolytic enzymes. It rather resembles cefotaxime in its properties, but is not subject to metabolism.

Ceftriaxone sodium is an antibiotic, a third-generation cephalosporin. Like other third-generation cephalosporins, it has broad-spectrum activity against Gram-positive bacteria and expanded Gram-negative coverage compared to second-generation agents. This includes pneumonia, ear infections, skin infections, urinary tract infections, gonorrhea, pelvic inflammatory disease, septisis, bone and joint infections, intra-abdominal infections, and meningitis. It is also used preoperatively to reduce the risk of postoperative infections. It is administered by intravenous or intramuscular injection.

Cefuroxime sodium is a broad-spectrum cephalosporin antibiotic useful in infections of gram-negative and gram-positive organisms, gonorrhea, and haemophilus.

Cephalexin is a cephalosporin antibiotic used to study the effect of expression, binding, and inhibition of PBP3 and other penicillin-binding proteins on bacterial cell wall mucopeptide synthesis. Cephalexin disrupts the synthesis of the peptidoglycan layer of bacterial cell walls which is responsible for cell wall structural integrity. Peptidoglycan synthesis is facilitated by transpeptidases known as penicillin-binding proteins.

Cefaloglycin is a first-generation semisynthetic cephalosporin with antibacterial activity. Cephaloglycin binds to and inactivates penicillin-binding proteins located on the inner membrane of the bacterial cell wall. This results in the weakening of the bacterial cell wall and causes cell lysis.

Chlorhexidine digluconate solution is a bis-biguanide family cationic broad spectrum antibiotic. Studies indicate that chlorhexidine digluconate solution functions, via destabilization of the outer bacterial membrane, which resulted in the release of periplasmic enzymes in gram negative bacteria. In addition, Chlorhexidine digluconate solution inhibits oxygen utilization which leads to a reduction in bacterial ATP. Furthermore, Chlorhexidine digluconate solution is very effective against bacteria such as Propionibacterium, Selenomonas, and cocci resembling Veillonella.

Chloroprocaine Hydrochloride is a synthetic, local anesthetic agent. At the injection site, chloroprocaine hydrochloride acts by inhibiting sodium influx through binding to specific membrane sodium ion channels in the neuronal cell membranes, restricting sodium permeability, and blocking nerve impulse conduction. This leads to a loss of sensation. Chloroprocaine hydrochloride is short-acting due to rapid hydrolysis by pseudocholinesterase into para-aminobenzoic acid in plasma.

Chloropyramine is a first generation antihistamine drug approved for the treatment of allergic conjunctivitis, allergic rhinitis, bronchial asthma, and other atopic (allergic) conditions. Chloropyramine is known as a competitive reversible H1-receptor antagonist, meaning that it exerts its pharmacological action by competing with histamine for the H1 subtype histamine receptor. By blocking the effects of histamine, the drug inhibits the vasodilation, increased vascular permeability, and tissue edema associated with histamine release in the tissue.

Chloroxine is a synthetic antibacterial agent. It inhibits the growth of Gram-positive and some Gram-negative bacteria and also induces SOS-DNA repair. Chlorxine shows bacteriostatic, fungistatic and antiprotozoal effects in vivo.

Chlorpropamide is a drug in the sulfonylurea class used to treat type 2 diabetes mellitus. It is a long-acting 1st generation sulfonylurea. Chlorpropamide acts to increase the secretion of insulin, so it is only effective in patients who have some pancreatic beta cell function.

Cinalukast is a potent, selective CysLT1 (LTD4) leukotriene receptor antagonist. It is used in the treatment of asthma, cinalukast selectively antagonizes leukotriene D4 (LTD4) at the cysteinyl leukotriene receptor, CysLT1, in the human airway. Cinalukast inhibits the actions of LTD4 at the CysLT1 receptor, preventing airway edema, smooth muscle contraction, and enhanced secretion of thick, viscous mucus.

Cinitapride is a gastroprokinetic agent and medication prescribed to treat conditions caused by an overactive digestive tract. It slows the actions of the muscles to reduce the symptoms of conditions such as acid reflux, ulcer dyspepsia, and delayed gastric emptying. It acts as an agonist of the 5-HT1 and 5-HT4 receptors and as an antagonist of the 5-HT2 receptors.

Cinolazepam is a benzodiazepine derivative drug. It possesses anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, sedative and skeletal muscle relaxant properties. Due to its strong sedative properties, it is primarily used as an hypnotic.

Cinoxacin was an older synthetic antimicrobial related to the quinolone class of antibiotics with activity similar to oxolinic acid and nalidixic acid. It was commonly used thirty years ago to treat urinary tract infections in adults. There are reports that cinoxacin had also been used to treat initial and recurrent urinary tract infections and bacterial prostatitis in dogs however this veterinary use was never approved by the FDA. In complicated UTI, the older gyrase-inhibitors such as cinoxacin are no longer indicated.

Ciprofloxacin hydrochloride is a broad-spectrum antimicrobial carboxyfluoroquinoline, an fluoroquinolone antibiotic that is widely used as an antimicrobial and immunomodulatory agent. It is capable of inducing respiratory, urinary tract, gastrointestinal, and abdominal infections. It functions by inhibiting DNA gyrase (a type II topoisomerase) and topoisomerase IV, the enzymes responsible for negative supercoiling of chromosomes and DNA strand separation, thus blocking initiation of bacterial replication. Most recently ciprofloxacin has been used in the management of postexposure inhalational anthrax and radiation combined injury resulting from nuclear disasters.

Clavulanate potassium is an acid which is a suicide inhibitor of bacterial beta-lactamase enzymes from Streptomyces clavuligerus. Administered alone, it has only weak antibacterial activity against most organisms, but when combined with penicillin-group antibiotics it prevents antibiotic inactivation by microbial lactamase. It is commonly combined with amoxicillin or ticarcillin.

Clemastine fumarate is a histamine H1 antagonist used as the hydrogen fumarate in hay fever, rhinitis, allergic skin conditions, and pruritus. Clemastine fumarate blocks the H1 histamine receptor and prevents the symptoms that are caused by histamine activity on capillaries, bronchial and gastrointestinal smooth muscles, including vasodilation, increased capillary permeability, bronchoconstriction, and spasmodic contraction of gastrointestinal smooth muscles. It may cause cause drowsiness. This drug also prevents histamine-induced pain and itching of mucous membranes.

Clenbuterol Hydrochloride is a sympathomimetic β2-adrenoceptor agonist that has been used as a bronchodilator in the treatment of pulmonary diseases such as asthma. At higher doses, clenbuterol acts as an anabolic steroid, favoring skeletal muscle protein synthesis at the expense of fat deposition.

Clidinium bromide is an anticholinergic drug, specifically a muscarinic antagonist. It may help symptoms of cramping and abdominal/stomach pain by decreasing stomach acid, and slowing the intestines. It is commonly prescribed in combination with chlordiazepoxide using the brand name Librax.

Clofibrate (Atromid-S) is an aryloxyisobutyric acid derivate with antihyperlipidemic activity. It is marketed as a fibrate. It is a lipid-lowering agent used for controlling the high cholesterol and triacylglyceride level in the blood. It increases lipoprotein lipase activity to promote the conversion of VLDL to LDL, and hence reduce the level of VLDL. It can increase the level of HDL as well.

Clomifene or clomiphene is a selective estrogen receptor modulator (SERM) that has become the most widely prescribed drug for ovulation induction to reverse anovulation or oligoovulation. Clomiphene is a triphenylethylene nonsteroidal ovulatory stimulant evaluated for antineoplastic activity against breast cancer. Clomiphene has both estrogenic and anti-estrogenic activities that compete with estrogen for binding at estrogen receptor sites in target tissues. This agent causes the release of the pituitary gonadotropins follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH), leading to ovulation. It is on the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines, the most important medications needed in a basic health system.

Cloxacillin is an antibiotic useful for the treatment of a number of bacterial infections. It is semisynthetic and in the same class as penicillin. Cloxacillin is used against staphylococci that produce beta-lactamase, due to its large R chain, which does not allow the beta-lactamases to bind. This drug has a weaker antibacterial activity than benzylpenicillin, and is devoid of serious toxicity except for allergic reactions. Cloxacillin was discovered and developed by Beecham. It is sold under a number of trade names, including Cloxapen, Cloxacap, Tegopen and Orbenin. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, the most important medication needed in a basic health system.

Cromoglicic acid , cromolyn (USAN), cromoglycate (former BAN), or cromoglicate, is traditionally described as a mast cell stabilizer, and is commonly marketed as the sodium salt sodium cromoglicate or cromolyn sodium. This drug prevents the release of inflammatory chemicals such as histamine from mast cells. Because of their convenience (and perceived safety), leukotriene receptor antagonists have largely replaced it as the non-corticosteroid treatment of choice in the treatment of asthma. Cromoglicic acid requires administration four times daily, and does not provide additive benefit in combination with inhaled corticosteroids.

Cyclandelate is a direct-acting smooth muscle relaxant vasodilator used in the treatment of claudication, arteriosclerosis and Raynaud's disease. It is also used to treat nighttime leg cramps, and has been investigated for its effect against migraine. It is orally administered.

Cyclopentolate is a parasympatholytic anticholinergic used solely to obtain mydriasis or cycloplegia. It is commonly used during pediatric eye examinations to dilate the eye (mydriatic), prevent accommodation of the eye to different distances (cycloplegic), and block specific receptors called muscarinic receptors (muscarinic antagonist). Cyclopentolate is also administered as an atropine substitute to reverse muscarinic and central nervous system effects of indirect cholinomimetic (anti-AChase) administration.

Dalfampridine is a potassium channel blocker used to help multiple sclerosis patients walk. This is the first drug that was specifically approved to help with mobility in these patients. It has been approved by the FDA for use as a treatment for multiple sclerosis.

Danazol is a derivative of the synthetic steroid ethisterone that suppresses the production of gonadotropins and has some weak androgenic effects. Before becoming available as a generic drug, danazol was marketed as Danocrine in the United States. It was approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as the first drug to specifically treat endometriosis in the early 1970s. Although effective for endometriosis, its use is limited by its masculinizing side-effects. Its role as a treatment for endometriosis has been largely replaced by the GnRH agonists.

Dantrolene sodium is a postsynaptic muscle relaxant that lessens excitation-contraction coupling in muscle cells. It achieves this by inhibiting Ca2+ ions release from sarcoplasmic reticulum stores by antagonizing ryanodine receptors. It is the primary drug used for the treatment and prevention of malignant hyperthermia, a rare, life-threatening disorder triggered by general anesthesia. It is also used in the management of neuroleptic malignant syndrome, muscle spasticity (e.g. after strokes, in paraplegia, cerebral palsy, or patients with multiple sclerosis), and 2,4-dinitrophenol poisoning.

Debrisoquine is a derivative of guanidine. It is an antihypertensive drug similar to guanethidine. Debrisoquine is frequently used for phenotyping the CYP2D6 enzyme, a drug metabolizing enzyme.

Decamethonium (Syncurine) is a depolarizing muscle relaxant or neuromuscular blocking agent, and is used in anesthesia to induce paralysis. Decamethonium, which has a short action time, is similar to acetylcholine and acts as a partial agonist of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor. In the motor endplate, it causes depolarization, preventing further effects to the normal release of acetylcholine from the presynaptic terminal, and therefore preventing the neural stimulus from affecting the muscle.

Deferoxamine is a bacterial siderophore produced by the Actinobacteria Streptomyces pilosus. It has medical applications as a chelating agent used to remove excess iron from the body. The mesylate salt of DFO-B is commercially available. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, the most important medications needed in a basic health system. Deferoxamine acts by binding free iron in the bloodstream and enhancing its elimination in the urine.

Demeclocycline (INN, BAN) (brand names Declomycin, Declostatin, Ledermycin, Bioterciclin, Deganol, Deteclo), also known as demeclocycline hydrochloride (USAN) (brand names Detravis, Meciclin, Mexocine, Clortetrin), is a semisynthetic tetracycline antibiotic which was derived from a strain of Streptomyces aureofaciens. Demeclocycline binds to bacterial 30S ribosomal subunit and prevents binding of aminoacyl-tRNA to the mRNA-ribosome complex, thereby inhibiting protein synthesis. Demeclocycline also inhibits the effect of vasopressin on the renal tubules, thereby causing diuresis. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demeclocycline).

Desvenlafaxine (brand name: Pristiq, Desfax), also known as O-desmethylvenlafaxine, is an antidepressant of the serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (SNRI) class developed and marketed by Wyeth (now part of Pfizer). Desvenlafaxine is a synthetic form of the major active metabolite of venlafaxine (sold under the brand names Effexor and Efexor). It is being targeted as the first non-hormonal based treatment for menopause. Desvenlafaxine is a synthetic phenethylamine bicyclic derivative with antidepressant activity. Desvenlafaxine is a selective reuptake inhibitor of serotonin and norepinephrine due to its high binding affinities to the pre-synaptic serotonin and norepinephrine transporters. By blocking both transporters, this agent prolongs neurotransmitter activities of both serotonin and norepinephrine, thereby alleviating depressive state. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desvenlafaxine).

Dexbrompheniramine is an antihistamine with anticholinergic properties used to treat allergic conditions such as hay fever or urticaria. It is the pharmacologically active dextrorotatory isomer of brompheniramine. It was formerly marketed in combination with pseudoephedrine under the name Drixoral in the US and Canada. Dexbrompheniramine is a histamine H1-receptor antagonist that competes with histamine for the H1-receptor sites on effector cells in the gastrointestinal tract, blood vessels and respiratory tract.

Dexmedetomidine, sold under the trade names Precedex and Dexdor, among others, is an anxiolytic, sedative, and analgesic medication. Similar to clonidine, it is an agonist of α2-adrenergic receptors in certain parts of the brain. Dexmedetomidine is notable for its ability to provide sedation without risk of respiratory depression (unlike other commonly used sedatives such as propofol, fentanyl, and midazolam) and can provide cooperative or semi-arousable sedation. Dexmedetomidine hydrochloride is also used in veterinary medicine for dogs and cats. The drug was developed by Orion Pharma. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dexmedetomidine).

Dextrothyroxine (trade name Choloxin) saw research as an cholesterol-lowering drug but was pulled due to cardiac side-effects. It also increases hepatic lipase which in turn improves utilization of triglycerides, improving apolipoprotein E cholesterol particles. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dextrothyroxine).

Diatrizoic acid (or its anionic form, diatrizoate), also known as amidotrizoic acid, or 3,5-diacetamido-2,4,6-triiodobenzoic acid, is a radiocontrast agent containing iodine. Trade names include Hypaque, Gastrografin and Urografin, the latter being a combination of the sodium and meglumine salts. Diatrizoate is considered a high-osmolality contrast agent.

Dibucaine (USAN) is an amide local anesthetic. Dibucaine reversibly binds to and inactivates sodium channels in the neuronal cell membrane. Inhibition of sodium channels prevents the depolarization of nerve cell membranes and inhibits subsequent propagation of impulses along the course of the nerve, thereby limiting the excitation of nerve endings. This results in loss of sensation. Among the most potent and toxic of the long-acting local anesthetics, current use of dibucaine is generally restricted to spinal and topical anesthesia. It is sold under the brand names Cincain, Nupercainal, Nupercaine and Sovcaine. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinchocaine).

Diclofenac is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) taken or applied to reduce inflammation and as an analgesic reducing pain in certain conditions. It is supplied as or contained in medications under a variety of trade names. As a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), Diclofenac binds and chelates both isoforms of cyclooxygenase (COX-1 and-2), thereby blocking the conversion of arachidonic acid to pro-inflammatory-proprostaglandins. This agent also may inhibit COX-2-mediated tumor angiogenesis. When inhibiting COX-2, Diclofenac may be effective in relieving pain and inflammation; when inhibiting COX-1, it may produce unacceptable gastrointestinal side effects. This agent may be more active against COX-2 than several other carboxylic acid-containing NSAIDs.

Dicoumarol (INN) or dicumarol (USAN) is a naturally occurring anticoagulant that functions as a functional vitamin K depleter (similar to warfarin, a drug that dicoumarol inspired). It is also used in biochemical experiments as an inhibitor of reductases. Like all 4-hydroxycoumarin drugs it is a competitive inhibitor of vitamin K epoxide reductase, an enzyme that recycles vitamin K, thus causing depletion of active vitamin K in blood. This prevents the formation of the active form of prothrombin and several other coagulant enzymes. These compounds are not antagonists of Vitamin K directly—as they are in pharmaceutical uses—but rather promote depletion of vitamin K in bodily tissues allowing vitamin K's mechanism of action as a potent medication for dicoumarol toxicity. The mechanism of action of Vitamin K along with the toxicity of dicoumarol are measured with the prothrombin time (PT) blood test. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dicoumarol).

Dicyclomine is an anticholinergic that blocks muscarinic receptors. Dicyclomine is used to treat intestinal hypermotility and the symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome (also known as spastic colon). It relieves muscle spasms and cramping in the gastrointestinal tract by blocking the activity of acetylcholine on cholinergic (or muscarinic) receptors on the surface of muscle cells. It is a smooth muscle relaxant.

Dienestrol is a synthetic, non-steroidal estrogen structurally related to stilbestrol. It is used, usually as the cream, in the treatment of menopausal and postmenopausal symptoms. It is an estrogen receptor agonist. Estrogens work partly by increasing a normal clear discharge from the vagina and making the vulva and urethra healthy. Using or applying an estrogen relieves or lessens: dryness and soreness in the vagina, itching, redness, or soreness of the vulva. Conditions that are treated with vaginal estrogens include a genital skin condition (vulvar atrophy), inflammation of the vagina (atrophic vaginitis), and inflammation of the urethra (atrophic urethritis).

Dihydrotachysterol is a synthetic vitamin D analog activated in the liver that does not require renal hydroxylation like vitamin D2 (ergocalciferol) and vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol). DHT has a rapid onset of action (2 hours), a shorter half-life, and a greater effect on mineralization of bone salts than does vitamin D.

Diloxanide is a luminal amebicide used in the treatment of amebiasis. It is considered the luminal agent of choice for mild intestinal amebiasis or asymptomatic cyst carriers. It can also be added to metronidazole (active drug in luminal and extraintestinal amebiasis) in acute amebic dysentery as well as hepatic abscess (In hepatic abscess it is for the control of cysts in the lumen which may cause relapse).

Diltiazem is a nondihydropyridines (non-DHP) calcium channel blocker used in the treatment of hypertension, angina pectoris, and some types of arrhythmia. It relaxes the smooth muscles in the walls of arteries, which opens (dilates) the arteries, allows blood to flow more easily, and lowers blood pressure.

Dimenhydrinate is an over-the-counter antiemetic used for the treatment of the symptoms of motion sickness.

Diphenhydramine is a first-generation antihistamine possessing anticholinergic, antitussive, antiemetic, and sedative properties that is mainly used to treat allergies. It is also used in the management of drug-induced parkinsonism and other extrapyramidal symptoms.

Diphenylpyraline is a first-generation antihistamine with anticholinergic effects of the diphenylpiperidine class.

Disopyramide is an antiarrhythmic medication used in the treatment of Ventricular Tachycardia. It is a sodium channel blocker and therefore classified as a Class 1a anti-arrhythmic agent. Disopyramide has a negative inotropic effect on the ventricular myocardium, significantly decreasing the contractility.

Dobutamine is a sympathomimetic drug used in the treatment of heart failure and cardiogenic shock. Its primary mechanism is direct stimulation of β1 receptors of the sympathetic nervous system.

Dolasetron is a serotonin 5-HT3 receptor antagonist used to treat nausea and vomiting following chemotherapy. Its main effect is to reduce the activity of the vagus nerve, which is a nerve that activates the vomiting center in the medulla oblongata. It does not have much antiemetic effect when symptoms are due to motion sickness. This drug does not have any effect on dopamine receptors or muscarinic receptors.

Dorzolamide is a carbonic anhydrase inhibitor. It is an anti-glaucoma agent, and acts by decreasing the production of aqueous humour. It is administered as a topical ophthalmic in the form of a 2% solution.

Doxazosin is an α-1 adrenergic receptor blocker that inhibits the binding of norepinephrine, which is released from sympathetic nerve terminals, to the α-1 receptors on the membrane of vascular smooth muscle cells. Blockages of the alpha-1 adrenergic action on the vascular smooth muscles lead to a decrease in vascular resistance and antihypertensive activity. This agent also shows high affinity to alpha-1c adrenoceptor, the predominant functional type in the prostate, which may partially attribute to its effect in treatment of benign prostatic hyperplasia.

Doxycycline Hyclate is the hyclate salt form of a synthetic, broad-spectrum tetracycline antibiotic exhibiting antimicrobial activity. It is an antimicrobial tetracycline that acts as an inhibitor of a wide range of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) of MMP-1 and MMP-8. Doxycycline hyclate binds reversibly to the 30S ribosomal subunit, possibly to the 50S ribosomal subunit as well, thereby blocking the binding of aminoacyl-tRNA to the mRNA-ribosome complex. This leads to an inhibition of protein synthesis.

Droperidol is a D1DR and D2DR inhibitor, an antidopaminergic drug used as an antiemetic and antipsychotic. Droperidol is also often used for neuroleptanalgesic anesthesia and sedation in intensive-care treatment. It has also been used as an antipsychotic in doses ranging from 5 to 10 mg given as an intramuscular injection, generally in cases of severe agitation in a psychotic patient who is refusing oral medication. Its use in intramuscular sedation has been replaced by intramuscular preparations of haloperidol, midazolam, clonazepam and olanzapine.

Dyclonine Hydrochloride is an oral local anesthetic. Dyclonine reversibly binds to activated sodium channels on the neuronal membrane, thereby decreasing the neuronal membrane's permeability to sodium ions, leading to an increased threshold for excitation. This reversibly stabilizes the membrane and inhibits depolarization, leading to the failure of a propagated action potential and subsequent conduction blockade. This results in a transient and reversible loss of sensation in a localized area of the body.

Dydrogesterone is a synthetic progestin. Dydrogesterone alone or in combination with estrogen to endothelial cells results in neutral effects on NO synthesis and on the activity and expression of eNOS. Unlike many other progestational compounds, dydrogesterone produces no increase in temperature and does not inhibit ovulation.

Dyphylline is a phosphodiesterase inhibitor used in the treatment of respiratory disorders like asthma, cardiac dyspnea, and bronchitis. Dyphylline is a xanthine derivative with bronchodilator and vasodilator effects. It also acts as an adenosine receptor antagonist. Dyphilline probably acts as a competitive inhibitor of phosphodiesterase which leads to an increase in intracellular cAMP. This results in relaxation of bronchial smooth muscle and other smooth muscles.

Echothiophate iodide is a potent, long-acting cholinesterase inhibitor used as a miotic in the treatment of glaucoma. Echothiophate iodide covalently binds by its phosphate group to serine group at the active site of the cholinesterase. Once bound, the enzyme is permanently inactive and the cell has to make new enzymes. Echothiophate binds irreversibly to cholinesterase. Because of the very slow rate at which echothiophate is hydrolyzed by cholinesterase, its effects can last a week or more. It is used as an ocular antihypertensive in the treatment of chronic glaucoma and, in some cases, accommodative esotropia. It is available under several trade names such as Phospholine Iodide.

Emedastine Difumarate is the difumarate salt form of emedastine, a second generation, selective histamine H1 receptor antagonist with anti-allergic activity. This medication is an antihistamine, prescribed for allergic conjunctivitis. It blocks histamine's action, which reduces allergy symptoms. Emedastine reversibly and competitively blocks histamine by binding to H1 receptors, thus blocking its downstream activity. As a result, this agent interferes with mediator release from mast cells either by inhibiting calcium ion influx across mast cell/basophil plasma membrane or by inhibiting intracellular calcium ion release within the cells. Upon ocular administration, emedastine causes a dose-dependent inhibition of histamine-stimulated vascular permeability in the conjunctiva.

Enoxacin is an oral broad-spectrum fluoroquinolone antibacterial agent used in the treatment of urinary tract infections and gonorrhea. Enoxacin is a broad-spectrum antibacterial agent that is structurally related to nalidixic acid. It acts on DNA gyrase. Insomnia is a common adverse effect. Recently, enoxacin has been shown recently that it may have cancer inhibiting effect.

Enoximone is a selective phosphodiesterase III (PDE3) inhibitor with vasodilating and positive inotropic activity that does not cause changes in myocardial oxygen consumption. Enoximone prevents the degradation of cAMP by PDE, which prolongs signal transduction and its subsequent effects. It is used in patients with congestive heart failure.

Enprofylline is a xanthine derivative used in the treatment of asthma, which acts as a bronchodilator. It acts primarily as a competitive nonselective phosphodiesterase inhibitor with relatively little activity as a nonselective adenosine receptor antagonist. Enprofylline is used in asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and in the management of cerebrovascular insufficiency, sickle cell disease, and diabetic neuropathy. Long-term enprofylline administration may be associated with elevation in liver enzyme levels and unpredictable blood levels.

(-)-Epinephrine is a natural predominant neurotransmitter that is released from the adrenal medulla and activates adrenoceptors. (-)-Epinephrine has been found to be an effective β2-agonist and bronchiodialator. (-)-Epinephrine is an activator of β2-AR. Through these receptors, (-)-epinephrine may induce either contraction or relaxation of vascular smooth muscle, depending on adrenoceptor subtype expression. Receptor-mediated actions of (-)-epinephrine are also relevant to blocking anaphylaxis, reversing cardiac arrest, and reducing bleeding in clinical trials.

Epoprostenol Sodium is a potent vasodilator and antiplatelet substance with a very short physiologic half-life. The sodium salt is used primarily for the treatment of pulmonary hypertension. Epoprostenol sodium inhibits platelet aggregation. It is biosynthesized enzymatically from prostaglandin endoperoxides in human vascular tissue.

Eptifibatide, also co-promoted by Schering-Plough/Essex, is an antiplatelet drug of the glycoprotein IIb/IIIa inhibitor class. Eptifibatide is a cyclic heptapeptide derived from a protein found in the venom of the southeastern pygmy rattlesnake (Sistrurus miliarius barbouri). It belongs to the class of the arginin-glycin-aspartat-mimetics and reversibly binds to platelets. Eptifibatide has a short half-life. The drug is the third inhibitor of GPIIb/IIIa that has found broad acceptance after the specific antibody abciximab and the non-peptide tirofiban entered the global market.

Esmolol Hydrochloride is the hydrochloride salt form of esmolol, a short and rapid-acting beta adrenergic antagonist belonging to the class II anti-arrhythmic drugs and devoid of intrinsic sympathomimetic activity. Esmolol hydrochloride competitively blocks beta-1 adrenergic receptors in cardiac muscle and reduces the contractility and cardiac rate of heart muscle, thereby decreasing cardiac output and myocardial oxygen demands. This agent also decreases sympathetic output centrally and blocks renin secretion. At higher doses, esmolol hydrochloride also blocks beta-2 receptors located in bronchial and vascular smooth muscle, thereby leading to smooth muscle relaxation.

Ethambutol Hydrochloride is a bacteriostatic antimycobacterial drug used to treat tuberculosis. It is usually part of a wider treatment of drugs that include rifampicin, pyrazinamide, and isoniazid. Ethambutol hydrochloride is an antitubercular agent that inhibits the transfer of mycolic acids into the cell wall of the tubercle bacillus. It may also inhibit the synthesis of spermidine in mycobacteria. The action is usually bactericidal, and the drug can penetrate human cell membranes to exert its lethal effect.

Ethinyl Estradiol is a semisynthetic estrogen. The mechanism of action of ethinyl estradiol is as an Estrogen Receptor Agonist. It has high estrogenic potency when administered orally, and is often used as the estrogenic component in oral contraceptives. Ethinyl estradiol binds to the estrogen receptor complex and enters the nucleus, activating DNA transcription of genes involved in estrogenic cellular responses. This agent also inhibits 5-alpha reductase in epididymal tissue, which lowers testosterone levels and may delay progression of prostatic cancer. In addition to its antineoplastic effects, ethinyl estradiol protects against osteoporosis. In animal models, short-term therapy with this agent has been shown to provide long-term protection against breast cancer, mimicking the antitumor effects of pregnancy.

Ethoxzolamide is a sulfonamide medication that functions as a carbonic anhydrase inhibitor. It is used in the treatment of glaucoma and duodenal ulcers, and as a diuretic. It may also be used in the treatment of some forms of epilepsy.

Etynodiol diacetate is a steroidal progestin which is used as a hormonal contraceptive. Relative to other 19-nortestosterone derivatives, it has relatively little or no potency as an androgen, and, unlike most progestins but similarly to noretynodrel, also has some estrogenic effects.

Etidronic acid is a bisphosphonate used in detergents, water treatment, cosmetics and pharmaceutical treatment. An etidronate is a salt of etidronic acid, abbreviated MnHEDP (M: is a cation, n: number of M maximum 4).

Fenoprofen is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug. Fenoprofen calcium is used for symptomatic relief for rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, and mild to moderate pain. Fenoprofen blocks the enzymes that make prostaglandins (cyclooxygenases), resulting in lower concentrations of prostaglandins. As a consequence, inflammation, swelling, pain and fever are reduced.

Fexofenadine is an antihistamine pharmaceutical drug used in the treatment of allergy symptoms, such as hay fever, nasal congestion, and urticaria. Fexofenadine is classified as a second-generation antihistamine because it is less able to pass the blood-brain barrier and cause sedation, compared to a first-generation antihistamines.

Finasteride is a medication used for the treatment of benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) and male pattern baldness (MPB). It is a type II and type III 5α-reductase inhibitor; 5α-reductase, an enzyme, converts testosterone to dihydrotestosterone (DHT).

Flucloxacillin is a narrow-spectrum beta-lactam antibiotic of the penicillin class. It is used to treat infections caused by susceptible Gram-positive bacteria. Unlike other penicillins, flucloxacillin has activity against beta-lactamase-producing organisms such as Staphylococcus aureus as it is beta-lactamase stable. However, it is ineffective against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). It is very similar to dicloxacillin and they are considered interchangeable.

Fludrocortisone is a synthetic corticosteroid with moderate glucocorticoid potency and much greater mineralocorticoid potency. Therapeutically, it is used for its mineralocorticoid activity and not for its glucocorticoid activity. Fludrocortisone has been used in the treatment of cerebral salt wasting syndrome. However, it is used primarily to replace the missing hormone aldosterone in various forms of adrenal insufficiency such as Addison's disease and the classic salt wasting (21-hydroxylase deficiency) form of congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Due to its effects on increasing Na+ levels, and therefore blood volume, fludrocortisone is the first line of treatment for orthostatic intolerance and postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome (POTS). It can be used to treat low blood pressure. Fludrocortisone is also used as a confirmation test for diagnosing Conn's syndrome (aldosterone producing-adrenal adenoma).

Flunarizine is a non-selective calcium entry blocker with other actions including histamine H1 receptor blocking activity. It is effective in the prophylaxis of migraine, occlusive peripheral vascular disease, vertigo of central and peripheral origin, and as an adjuvant in the therapy of epilepsy. It may help to reduce the severity and duration of attacks of paralysis associated with the more serious form of alternating hemiplegia, as well as being effective in rapid onset dystonia-parkinsonism (both of these conditions share a mutation in the ATP13A gene). Flunarizine has also been shown to significantly reduce headache frequency and severity in both adults and children.

Flunisolide is a corticosteroid often prescribed as treatment for allergic rhinitis. Intranasal corticosteroids are the most effective medication for controlling symptoms. The principal mechanism of action of flunisolide is to activate glucocorticoid receptors, meaning it has an anti-inflammatory action.

Fluphenazine is a antipsychotic medication. It is used in the treatment of chronic psychoses such as schizophrenia. Fluphenazine exerts its actions by blocking postsynaptic dopamine D2 receptors in the limbic, cortical system and basal ganglia. This prevents the actions of dopamine, thereby reducing the hallucinations and delusions that are associated with schizophrenia. It is given by mouth, injection into a muscle, or just under the skin.

Flurandrenolide is a synthetic glucocorticoid with anti-inflammatory and anti-allergic properties. Flurandrenolide exerts its effects by interacting with specific cytoplasmic glucocorticoid receptors and subsequently activates glucocorticoid receptor mediated gene expression. The synthesis of certain anti-inflammatory proteins is induced while the synthesis of certain inflammatory mediators is inhibited. As a result, there is an overall reduction in chronic inflammation and autoimmune reactions.

Fosfomycin trometamine is an antibiotic produced by Streptomyces fradiae.

Fosinopril Sodium is a phosphinic acid-containing ACE (angiotensin-converting enzyme) inhibitor that is effective in the treatment of hypertension. It is a prodrug that is converted to its active metabolite fosinoprilat.

Fosphenytoin Sodium is the sodium salt form of fosphenytoin, a prodrug that is hydrolyzed to the anticonvulsant phenytoin. It is an PDE3 (phosphodiesterase 3) inhibitor. Phenytoin exerts its effect most likely through an enhancement of sodium efflux from neurons in the motor cortex. This leads to a suppression of excessive neuronal firing and spread of seizure activity. Other physiologic effects from actions of phenytoin include modulation of the voltage-dependent calcium channels of neurons, inhibition of calcium flux across neuronal membranes and enhancement of sodium-potassium ATPase activity of neurons and glial cells.